HaCKeRz Kr0nlcKLeZ 1/HaCKeRz Kr0nlcKLeZ.iso/anarchy/essays/schoolsucks/batter.txt

Text File | 1996-04-27 | 24.1 KB | 374 lines

    Battered Women's Syndrome: A Survey of Contemporary Theories


    In 1991, Governor William Weld modified parole regulations and
permitted women to seek commutation if they could present evidence
indicating they suffered from battered women's syndrome.   A short while
later, the Governor, citing spousal abuse as his impetus, released seven
women convicted of killing their husbands, and the Great and General
Court of Massachusetts enacted Mass. Gen. L. ch. 233 º 23E (1993), which
permits the introduction of evidence of abuse in criminal trials.  These
decisive acts brought the issue of domestic abuse to the public's
attention and left many Massachusetts residents, lawyers and judges
struggling to define battered women's syndrome.  In order to help these
individuals define battered women's syndrome, the origins and
development of the three primary theories of the syndrome and
recommended treatments are outlined below.

I. The Classical Theory of Battered Women's Syndrome and its Origins

    The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV),
known in the mental health field as the clinician's bible, does not recognize
battered women's syndrome as a distinct mental disorder.  In fact, Dr. Lenore
Walker, the architect of the classical battered women's syndrome theory, notes
the syndrome is not an illness, but a theory that draws upon the principles of
learned helplessness to explain why some women are unable to leave their
abusers.  Therefore, the classical battered women's syndrome theory is
best regarded as an offshoot of the theory of learned helplessness and
not a mental illness that afflicts abused women.
    The theory of learned helplessness sought to account for the passive
behavior subjects exhibited when placed in an uncontrollable
environment.  In the late 60's and early 70's, Martin Seligman, a famous
researcher in the field of psychology, conducted a series of experiments
in which dogs were placed in one of two types of cages. In the former
cage, henceforth referred to as the shock cage, a bell would sound and
the experimenters would electrify the entire floor seconds later,
shocking the dog regardless of location.  The latter cage, however,
although similar in every other respect to the shock cage, contained a
small area where the experimenters could administer no shock.  Seligman
observed that while the dogs in the latter cage learned to run to the
nonelectrified area after a series of shocks, the dogs in the shock cage
gave up trying to escape, even when placed in the latter cage and shown
that escape was possible.  Seligman theorized that the dogs' initial
experience in the uncontrollable shock cage led them to believe that
they could not control future events and was responsible for the
observed disruptions in behavior and learning.  Thus, according to the
theory of learned helplessness, a subject placed in an uncontrollable
environment will become passive and accept painful stimuli, even though
escape is possible and apparent.
    In the late 1970's, Dr. Walker drew upon Seligman's research and
incorporated it into her own theory, the battered women's syndrome, in
an attempt to explain why battered women remain with their abusers.
According to Dr. Walker, battered women's syndrome contains two distinct
elements: a cycle of violence and symptoms of learned helplessness.  The
cycle of violence is composed of three phases: the tension building
phase, active battering phase and calm loving respite phase.  During the
tension building phase, the victim is subjected to verbal abuse and
minor battering incidents, such as slaps, pinches and psychological
abuse.  In this phase, the woman tries to pacify her batterer by using
techniques that have worked previously.  Typically, the woman showers
her abuser with kindness or attempts to avoid him.  However, the
victim's attempts to pacify her batter are often fruitless and only work
to delay the inevitable acute battering incident.
    The tension building phase ends and the active battering phase begins
when the verbal abuse and minor battering evolve into an acute battering
incident.  A release of the tensions built during phase one
characterizes the active battering phase, which usually last for a
period of two to twenty-four hours.  The violence during this phase is
unpredictable and inevitable, and statistics indicate that the risk of
the batterer murdering his victim is at its greatest.  The batterer
places his victim in a constant state of fear, and she is unable to
control her batterer's violence by utilizing techniques that worked in
the tension building phase.  The victim, realizing her lack of control,
attempts to mitigate the violence by becoming passive.
    After the active battering phase comes to a close, the cycle of
violence enters the calm loving respite phase or "honeymoon phase."
During this phase, the batterer apologizes for his abusive behavior and
promises that it will never happen again.  The behavior exhibited by the
batter in the calm loving respite phase closely resembles the behavior
he exhibited when the couple first met and fell in love.  The calm
loving respite phase is the most psychologically victimizing phase
because the batterer fools the victim, who is relieved that the abuse
has ended, into believing that he has changed.  However, inevitably, the
batterer begins to verbally abuse his victim and the cycle of abuse
begins anew.
    According to Dr. Walker, Seligman's theory of learned helplessness
explains why women stay with their abusers and occurs in a victim after
the cycle of violence repeats numerous times.  As noted earlier, dogs
who were placed in an environment where pain was unavoidable responded
by becoming passive.  Dr. Walker asserts that, in the domestic abuse
ambit, sporadic brutality, perceptions of powerlessness, lack of
financial resources and the superior strength of the batterer all
combine to instill a feeling of helplessness in the victim.  In other
words, batterers condition women into believing that they are powerless
to escape by subjecting them to a continuing pattern of uncontrollable
violence and abuse.  Dr. Walker, in applying the learned helplessness
theory to battered women, changed society's perception of battered women
by dispelling the myth that battered women like abuse and offering a
logical and rationale explanation for why most stay with their abuser.
    As the classical theory of battered women's syndrome is based upon the
psychological principles of conditioning, experts believe that behavior
modification strategies are best suited for treating women suffering
from the syndrome.  A simple, yet effective, behavioral strategy
consists of two stages.  In the initial stage, the battered woman
removes herself from the uncontrollable or "shock cage" environment and
isolates herself from her abuser.  Generally, professionals help the
victim escape by using assertiveness training, modeling and recommending
use of the court system.  After the woman terminates the abusive
relationship, professionals give the victim relapse prevention training
to ensure that subsequent exposure to abusive behavior will not cause
maladaptive behavior.  Although this strategy is effective, the model
offered by Dr. Walker suggests that battered women usually do not
actively seek out help.  Therefore, concerned agencies and individuals
must be proactive and extremely sensitive to the needs and fears of
victims.
    In sum, the classical battered women's syndrome is a theory that has
its origins in the research of Martin Seligman.  Women in a domestic
abuse situation experience a cycle of violence with their abuser.  The
cycle is composed of three phases: the tension building phase, active
battering phase and calm loving respite phase.  A gradual increase in
verbal abuse marks the tension building phase.  When this abuse
culminates into an acute battering episode, the relationship enters the
active battering phase.  Once the acute battering phase ends, usually
within two to twenty-four hours, the parties enter the calm loving
respite phase, in which the batterer expresses remorse and promises to
change.   After the cycle has played out several times, the victim
begins to manifest symptoms of learned helplessness.  Behavioral
modification strategies offer an effective treatment for battered
women's syndrome.  However, Dr. Walker's model indicates that battered
women may not seek the help that they need because of feelings of
helplessness.

II. An Alternate Battered Women's Syndrome Theory: Battered Women as
Survivors.

    Over the years, empirical data has emerged that casts doubt on Dr.
Walker's explanation of why women stay with their batterers or, in
extreme cases, why they kill their abusers.  Two researchers, Edward W.
Gondolf and Ellen R. Fisher, make reference to voluminous statistics
that refute the classical battered women's syndrome theory, and suggest
Dr. Walker erroneously attributes a victim's refusal to leave her
batterer to learned helplessness.  For instance, the two, in discounting
Dr. Walker's theory, cite a study conducted by Lee H. Bowker that
indicates victims of abuse often contact other family members for help
as the violence escalates over time.  The two also note that Bowker
observed a steady increase in formal help-seeking behavior as the
violence increased.  In addition to citing empirical data, Gondolf and
Fisher point out that using Dr. Walker's theory to explain the battered
woman's actions in extreme cases creates the ultimate oxymoron: a woman
so helpless she kills her batterer.  In an effort to account for the
shortcomings of the classical battered women's theory, Gondolf and
Fisher offered the markedly different survivor theory of battered
women's syndrome, which consists of four important elements.
     The first element of the survivor theory surmises that a pattern of
abuse prompts battered women to employ innovative coping strategies and
to seek help, such as flattering the batterer and turning to their
families for assistance.  When these sources of help prove ineffective,
the battered woman seeks out other sources and employs different
strategies to lessen the abuse.  For example, the battered women may
avoid her abuser all together and seek help from the court system. Thus,
according to the survivor theory, battered women actively seek help and
employ coping skills throughout the abusive relationship.  In contrast,
the classical theory of battered women's syndrome views women as
becoming passive and helpless in the face of repeated abuse.
    The second element of Gondolf and Fisher's theory posits that a lack of
options, know-how and finances, not learned helplessness, instills a
feeling of anxiety in the victim that prevents her from escaping the
abuser.  When a battered woman seeks outside help, she is typically
confronted with an ineffective bureaucracy, insufficient help sources
and societal indifference.  This lack of practical options, combined
with the victim's lack of financial resources, make it likely that a
battered women will stay and try to change her batterer, rather than
leave and face the unknown.  The classical battered women's syndrome
theory differs in that it focuses on the victim's perception that escape
is impossible, not on the obstacles the victim must overcome to escape.
    The third element expands on the first and describes how the victim
actively seeks help from a variety of formal and informal help sources.
For instance, an example of an informal help source would be a close
friend and a formal help source would be a shelter.  Gondolf and Fisher
maintain that the help obtained from these sources is inadequate and
piecemeal in nature.  Given these inadequacies, the researchers conclude
that the leaving a batterer is a difficult path for a victim to embark
upon.
    The fourth element of the survivor theory hypothesizes that the failure
of the aforementioned help sources to intervene in a comprehensive and
decisive manner permits the cycle of abuse to continue unchecked.
Interestingly, Gondolf and Fisher blame the lack of effective help on a
variation of the learned helplessness theory, explaining help
organizations are too overwhelmed and limited in their resources to be
effective and therefore do not try as hard as they should to help
victims.  Whatever the case may be, the researchers argue that we can
better understand the plight of the battered woman by asking did she
seek help and what happened when she did, rather than why didn't she
leave.
    Because the survivor theory of learned helplessness attributes the
battered woman's plight to ineffective help sources and societal
indifference, a logical solution would entail increased funding for
programs in place and educating the public about the symptoms and
consequences of domestic violence.  There are battered women's advocacy
programs in place in courts located throughout the country.  However,
inadequate funding limits their effectiveness.  By increasing funding,
citizens can assure that all battered women will receive the assistance
that will permit them to escape their batterer.  Additionally, if we
educate citizens about the harmful effects of domestic abuse, the public
will no longer treat victims with indifference.
    To recap, Edward W. Gondolf and Ellen R. Fisher developed the survivor
theory of battered women's syndrome to explain why statistics indicate
that battered women increase their help seeking behavior as the violence
escalates.  The theory is composed of four important elements.  The
first recognizes that battered women actively seek help throughout their
relationship with the abuser.  The second element posits that a lack of
options, know-how and finances creates anxiety in the victim over
leaving her batterer.  The third element describes the inadequate and
piecemeal help the victim receives.   Finally, the fourth element
concludes that the failure of help sources, not learned helplessness,
accounts for why many battered women remain with their abusers.  Under
the survivor theory, the best method for helping battered women is to
increase funding for battered women's assistance programs and agencies
and educate the public about the harmful effects of domestic abuse.

III. Battered Women's Syndrome Equals Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

    Although the DSM-IV does not recognize battered women's syndrome as a
distinct mental illness or disorder, some experts maintain that battered
women's syndrome is just another name for post traumatic stress
disorder, which the DSM-IV recognizes.  The post traumatic stress
disorder theory is also applied to individuals who were never exposed to
domestic abuse, and, in the domestic abuse ambit, does not exclusively
focus on the battered woman's perception of helplessness or ineffective
help sources to explain why she stayed with her batterer.  Instead, the
theory focuses on the psychological disturbance an individual suffers
after exposure to a traumatic event.
    In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association added the post traumatic
stress disorder classification to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders III, a manual used by mental health professionals to
diagnose mental illness.  Although the diagnosis was controversial at
the time, post traumatic stress disorder has gained wide acceptance in
the mental health community and revolutionized the way professionals
regard human reactions to trauma.  Prior to the disorder's inception,
experts attributed the cause of emotional trauma to individual
weakness.  However, with the advent of the theory of post traumatic
stress disorder, experts now attribute the etiology of emotional trauma
to an external stressor, not a weakness in the psyche of the individual.
    Since 1980, the American Psychiatric Association has revised the
criteria for diagnosing post traumatic stress disorder several times.
Currently, the diagnostic criteria for post traumatic stress disorder
include a history of exposure to a traumatic event and symptoms from
each of three symptom clusters: intrusive recollections,
avoidant/numbing symptoms and hyper arousal symptoms.  Recent data
indicate that many individuals qualify for a post traumatic stress
disorder under the current diagnostic criteria, with prevalence rates
running between 5 to 10% in our society.
    As noted earlier, in order for a diagnosis of post traumatic stress
disorder to apply, the individual must have been exposed to a traumatic
event involving actual or threatened death or injury, or a threat to the
physical integrity of the person or others.  The authors of the early
theory of post traumatic stress disorder considered a traumatic event to
be outside the range of human experience, such events included rape,
torture, war, the Holocaust, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanos, airplane crashes and
automobile accidents, and did not contemplate applying the diagnosis to
battered women.  The American Psychiatric Association loosened the
traumatic event criteria in the DSM-IV, which replaced the DSM-III and
DSM-IIIR.  Presently, the traumatic event need only be markedly
distressing to almost anyone.  Therefore, battered women have little
trouble meeting the DSM-IV traumatic event diagnostic requirement
because most people would find the abuse battered women are subjected to
markedly distressing.
    In addition to meeting the traumatic event diagnostic criteria, an
individual must have symptoms from the intrusive recollection,
avoidant/numbing and hyper arousal categories for a post traumatic
stress disorder diagnosis to apply.  The intrusive recollection category
consists of symptoms that are distinct and easily identifiable.  In
individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder, the traumatic
event is a dominant psychological experience that evokes panic, terror,
dread, grief or despair.  Often, these feelings are manifested in
daytime fantasies, traumatic nightmares and flashbacks.  Additionally,
stimuli that the individual associates with the traumatic event can
evoke mental images, emotional responses and psychological reactions
associated with the trauma.  Examples of intrusive recollection symptoms
a battered woman may suffer are fantasies of killing her batterer and
flashbacks of battering incidents.
    The avoidant/numbing cluster consists of the emotional strategies
individuals with post traumatic stress disorder use to reduce the
likelihood that they will either expose themselves to traumatic stimuli,
or if exposed, will minimize their psychological response.  The DSM-IV
divides the strategies into three categories: behavioral, cognitive and
emotional.  Behavioral strategies include avoiding situations where the
stimuli are likely to be encountered.  Dissociation and psychogenic
amnesia are cognitive strategies by which individuals with post
traumatic stress disorder cut off the conscious experience of
trauma-based memories and feelings.  Lastly, the individual may separate
the cognitive aspects from the emotional aspects of psychological
experience and perceive only the former.  This type of psychic numbing
serves as an emotional anesthesia that makes it extremely difficult for
people with post traumatic stress disorder to participate in meaningful
interpersonal relationships.  Thus, a battered woman suffering from post
traumatic stress disorder may avoid her batterer and repress
trauma-based feelings and emotions.
    The hyper arousal category symptoms closely resemble those seen in
panic and generalized anxiety disorders.  Although symptoms such as
insomnia and irritability are generic anxiety symptoms, hyper vigilance
and startle are unique to post traumatic stress disorder.  The hyper
vigilance symptom may become so intense in individuals suffering from
post traumatic stress disorder that it appears as if they are paranoid.
    A careful reading of post traumatic stress disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria indicates that Dr. Walker's classical theory of
battered women's syndrome is contained within.  For instance, both
theories require that the victim be exposed to a traumatic event.  In
Dr. Walker's theory, she describes the traumatic event as a cycle of
violence.  The post traumatic stress disorder theory, on the other hand,
only requires that the event be markedly distressing to almost
everyone.  Thus, the cycle of violence described by Dr. Walker is
considered a traumatic stressor for the purposes of diagnosing post
traumatic stress disorder.  Additionally, like the classical theory of
battered women's syndrome, the theory of post traumatic stress disorder
recognizes that an individual may become helpless after exposure to a
traumatic event.  Although the post traumatic stress disorder theory
seems to incorporate  Dr. Walker's theory, it is more inclusive in that
it recognizes that different individuals may have different reactions to
traumatic events and does not rely heavily on the theory of learned
helplessness to explain why battered women stay with their abusers.
    There are several methods a professional can utilize to treat
individuals suffering from post traumatic stress disorder.  The most
successful treatments are those that they administer immediately after
the traumatic event.  Experts commonly call this type of treatment
critical incident stress debriefing.  Although this type of treatment is
effective in halting the development of post traumatic stress disorder,
the cyclical nature and gradual escalation of violence in domestic abuse
situations make critical incident stress debriefing an unlikely therapy
for battered women.
    The second type of treatment is administered after post traumatic
stress disorder has developed and is less effective than critical
incident stress debriefing.  This type of treatment may consist of
psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and
group therapy.  The most effective post-manifestation treatment for
battered women is group therapy.  In a group therapy session, battered
women can discuss traumatic memories, post traumatic stress disorder
symptoms and functional deficits with others who have had similar
experiences.  By discussing their experiences and symptoms, the women
form a common bond and release repressed memories, feelings and
emotions.
    To summarize, many experts regard battered women's syndrome as a
subcategory of post traumatic stress disorder.  The diagnostic criteria
for post traumatic stress disorder include a history of exposure to a
traumatic event and symptoms from each of three symptom clusters:
intrusive recollections, avoidant/numbing symptoms and hyper arousal
symptoms.  After exposure to a traumatic event, defined by the DSM-IV as
one that is markedly distressing to almost everyone, an individual
suffering from post traumatic stress disorder may suffer intrusive
recollections, which consist of daytime fantasies, traumatic nightmares
and flashbacks.  The individual may also try to avoid stimuli that
remind him/her of the traumatic event and/or develop symptoms associated
with generic anxiety disorders.  Critical incident stress debriefing,
psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and
group therapy are all recognized as effective treatments for post
traumatic stress disorder.

IV. Conclusion
    Although there are many different theories of battered women's
syndrome, most are all variations or hybrids of the three main theories
outlined above.  A sound understanding of Dr. Walker's classical
battered women's syndrome theory, Gondolf and Fisher's survivor theory
of battered women's syndrome and the post traumatic stress disorder
theory, will permit the reader to identify the origins and essential
elements of these various hybrids and provide them with a better
understanding of the plight of the battered woman.  Given the prevalence
of domestic abuse in our society, it is important to realize that the
battered woman does not like abuse or is responsible for her
victimization.  The three theories discussed above all offer rationale
explanations for why a battered women often stays with her abuser and
explore the psychological harm caused by abuse while discounting the
popular perception that battered women must enjoy the abuse.
.